Extensive Reading/ Finni Fisachrini/ 031104006/ VIII-A/ Univ. Pakuan

Title : Lanang
Author : Yonathan Rahardjo
Editor : A. Fathoni
Publisher : Alvabet Sastra
Year : 2008
Page : 440
Size : 12,5 X 20 cm

Summary :
Dewi was a holder of doctorate who worked as a henchman of foreign
corporation. She had a duty for supplying genetic engineer product
from foreign country. She created transgenic animal that was able to
spread the virus of disease named wild boar bird or Burung Babi Hutan.
Since appearing of this peculiar animal, the area of dairy cow where
Lanang worked suddenly attacked by the mysterious disease. Lanang was
a clever veterinarian. With the government and the society, they tried
to find out the cause of the dairy cow's death. He had made some
researches, but he still failed to solve it. When he had been out of
ideas, an animal shaman declared his statement that the cow's of the
dairy cow's death was an animal with supernatural powers which was
called Burung Babi Hutan. Traditional mysticism polemic versus modern
biotechnology made the problem become hard to be solved.

Teaching Reading

Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.

This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them.

The communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used in instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourism Web sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level.

Reading Purpose and Reading Comprehension

Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas or writing style. A person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. The purpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of texts.

The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading comprehension. A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a person using a scientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses and givens.

Reading research shows that good readers

• Read extensively
• Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge
• Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading
• Are motivated
• Rely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing, phonemic processing, recall
• Read for a purpose; reading serves a function

Reading as a Process

Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.

Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include

• Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements of the writing system; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words are structured into sentences
• Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect parts of the text to one another
• Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types of texts and their usual structure and content
• Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies (see Strategies for Developing Reading Skills for descriptions), as well as knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy)

The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension. Reading comprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension results when the reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the type of text, and understands how to apply them to accomplish the reading purpose.

Taken from: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/reindex.htm

ESP

Dear Mrs. Atti,,, I have read the materials evaluations and evaluations. In my oppinion, this material is not easy. To conduct this materials wei must find the criteria - subjective analysis - objective analysis - matching. In this subject I realize assesment is really important to know how far the students' ability. we as a teacher should give the student exercise to know their ability.
SUMMARY
#Materials Evaluation#
-There are three possible ways of turning course design into actual teaching materials:
1.Select from existing materials: materials evaluation.
2.Write your own materials:materials development.
3.Modify exixting materials:materials adaption.

-There are 4 major steps on the evaluation process:
1.Defining criteria,
2.Subjective analysis,
3.Onjective analysis, and
4.Matching.
Thank you for your attention
Finni Fisachrini ( 031104006)

Indonesia to Cut Fuel Subsidies to Balance Budget

Indonesia will soon raise fuel prices by up to 30 percent to avoid a budget blowout amid the soaring cost of oil on the global market, the government said Monday.

The decision to cut subsidies that keep gasoline, diesel fuel and kerosene affordable to the country's millions of poor risks nationwide demonstrations and political opposition from parties jockeying for position ahead of elections next year.

The government last raised prices in 2005, defying protests and winning praise from international donors. To cushion the blow, it provided direct cash payments to the poor - a policy it is sure to repeat this time around.

President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono said the government was no longer debating whether to raise prices,but rather by how much and when. The discussion now is "whether it will be 20, 25 or 30 percent and why will it be that," he said.

Senior Economic Minister Boediono said the government was planning to raise prices in the "coming weeks" and that the poor would receive some form of direct compensation. He gave no more details.

Any price hike is sure to trigger inflation in the country of235 million people and risk hurting economic growth as its poorest citizens struggle to afford rice and other staples amid rising food costs.

Still, most in Indonesia agree the current level of fuel subsidies are unsustainable as global prices hover around US$117 a barrel.

Critics note they are also enjoyed by many of its wealthiest citizens, who currently spend just under half a dollar for a liter of gasoline for their cars.

Indonesia is Southeast Asia's largest oil producer and a member of OPEC, but it has to import oil because of decades of declining investment in exploration and extraction.

A big fuel price increase in 1998 triggered rioting that helped topple former dictator Suharto. Protests also forced former President Megawati Sukarnoputri to scale back a fuel price increase in 2002.(**)

Taken from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/05/05/indonesia-cut-fuel-subsidies-balance-budget.html

Based on my opinion, I think Indonesia faces a tough choice. Surging energy and food prices are pushing up the cost of subsidies, but a rise in fuel prices could spark anti-government protests ahead of next year's parliamentary and presidential elections.

Extensive Reading

Author: Cunong N Suraja, Drs.,M.Hum.
Year: 2007
Title: Cross Cultural Understanding 2007
Publisher: Pakuan University Bogor
Pages: 42 Pages
Price: Rp. 12.000,-
Summary:

Cross Cultural Understanding is a book that tells about many things. When I Studied that material last semester this book so interested. Actually I didn’t read this book until finish, because we didn’t enough time in meeting session. Cross culture understanding by Mr. Cunong is a good book. After read this book, I know what is Stereo types, Bilingualism, Prejudice & Stupidity. Mr. Cunong as the writer not only explain that material bus also another topic, such as how to eat, Pilgrimage, What is culture, Democrat ion, etc.
Stereotypes are a kind of gossip about the world, a gossip that makes us prejudge people before we ever lay eyes on them. We can’t stereotype the person from the outside.
Bilingualism learn more that 2 languages. Like me, I am bilinguals because I can speak in 3 languages, Sundanese, Indonesian, and English. This book has a weakness. The weakness of this book is on the pages. The pages didn’t start from the first page but 37.

Name: Finni Fisachrini
NPM: 031104006
Class: VIII-A
Extensive Reading

My Achilles Heel

Wayang Golek is a traditional form of puppetry from Sunda, West Java. Unlike flat leather shadow puppets, these puppets are made from wood, and being three-dimensional do not use a screen. The puppetts are ornate with colourful costumes, and have moveable arms and head.

The puppetteer sits on the floor behind a low "table" on which the puppetts perform. The shows are performed for at least six hours during the night, accompanied by gamelan music, with speech and singing to tell the story. This music is quite unlike the traditional court music from Solo, for example, and contains much banter and sound effects!

The stories are usually based on the epic stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the show is only a small part of the whole epic. In Indonesia, people are familiar with the different characters appearing in the stories, which can be recognised by the size, shape, colour and angle of their eyes and nose and the way they walk, talk, sing, dance and fight. Kinds of wayang golek : hanoman, cepot, gareng, sugriwa, gatot kaca,bima, batara kala, anila and anjani.

Subject : Cross Cultural Understanding

Lecture: Cunong N, Suharja, Drs., M. Hum.

Stereotype of AIDS

Stereotype of AIDS

Stereotype is someone who judge something or someone from the cover. We can do that. Based my opinion stereotype is someone who judge something before he/she knows the truth. As proverb “Don’t judge the books from the cover".

Are assumed characteristics based on a large group of individuals whose beliefs, habits, and actions are perceived to be similar.

Based my experience I have a friend contract AIDS. My parents asked me to keep away from him. I can not do what my parents asked to me because I think no one can infect his disease. His illness just infected by hypodermic needle, making love and blood transfusion. My friend is Dani. He told me about his experience why he infect AIDS. Actually my friend has many problems when he met his friend. He tries to share with his friends, but unfortunately his friend attempt to persuade to using drugs.

His friend brings those drugs. It called Putaw. My friends try to reject it but he attempt to persuade him for using drugs. He can not reject it because he thinks that it can help him to out of his problems in that time. After he knew the effect of drugs, he just dazed and doing nothing. He using drugs about 3 years and he joint the hypodermic needle with someone who infected AIDS, but Dani doesn’t know. Day by day he felt so broke. He can not walked anymore. His parents take him to the hospital and check up his body. How very surprised that he infected AIDS. After he knew his illness he doesn’t have any friends. All his friends afraid to him. But I have opinion that we can not do that. He is human and human can do mistakes. I am still his friend until now. So do not judge if someone infected AIDS he or she is a bad human.

How Culture affects Marriage Among Educated (westernized) Nigerians

William Femi Awodele
"When an African man or woman is born and raised in Nigeria, Ghana, etc such a
person is greatly influenced by the culture and religion and may not be aware of it.


1. Issue of Dowry and the role of the man and woman

The payment of dowry is a common practice in Africa, while dowry
payments date back to Bible days, its meaning has changed. Dowry is now
seen as purchasing the woman, so the woman is seen as a property and not
a helpmate.

For many years when women were uneducated, men got away with treating
them as a property. But with women lawyers, doctors, and other highly
placed professionals, things are changing.

Based on the issue of dowry, women are treated different. We joke that a
woman's place is in the kitchen. African men force respect out of their
spouse by beating them instead of getting it through good leadership.
The leadership role of a man is generally interpreted as that of a boss
and servant, instead of the role stated in the Bible, as servant leader
which Christ himself demonstrated in John chapter 13 when He washed the
feet of His disciple.

While speaking to over 100 pastors and wives in Port-au-Prince, Haiti
last week (4/8 - 4/16/05) you could have heard the pin drop when I said
men and women are equal before God and men are only the leader among
equal.

Earning more than your husband is a new concept that many people don't
know how to deal with because for decades African men (and indeed men
all over the world) have tied leading the home to financial dominance or
more earning capacity.

2. Conflict Resolution

Africans have always resolved conflicts by going to the Elders in the
village or among the extended family, while this has served us well and
I still recommend it, it's becoming a problem for us to do because this
elders for the most part don't deal with the issues brought up e.g.
adultery (because they are committing adultery themselves), they only
pacify the wife and husband. Because of our Spiritual believes we do not
believe in airing our dirty laundry, which means help is not sought for
marital problems until it is too late and when help is sought, a lot of
emphasis is placed on what the "devil" did instead of taking
responsibility for what happened and fixing it. Every marriage will have
problem(s) the and faster you seek help the better for your marriage.

3. Romance

My maternal grandpa had 10 wives that I know and this is typical of men
in his days (read my novel "The Power of Forgiveness" - by Femi Awodele
xulonpress.com). If they show favoritism to one of the women, that woman
is in trouble with the other wives. A man who is able to have sex with
10 different women do not need romance (men give romance to get sex,
while women give sex to get romance - Tommy Nelson). As Africans we did
not see our parents show romance to their spouse(s) and if anyone does
that we call them names "woman wrapper" or "Ruth". What gets on my
nerves is when African men tell me that being Romantic is a western
culture, then I refer them to the Bible which was written thousands of
years ago and it has nothing to do with western culture.

Being romantic with your wife or husband is the way to maintain your
marriage. Women were created by God to be an emotional creation, while
men are logical or analytical. For centuries, the African culture has
forced the woman to work opposite the function of their God given
hormone "estrogen" (If an African woman asks her husband for sex - which
will happen during her ovulation period - she is called "Ashawo")

4. Influence of Extended Family

Extended family has tremendous influence on an African Marriage. A
couple once told me that the husband's mother told both of them
separately not to reveal what they earn to each other. In my speaking
engagements, people have told me how the husband or wives listen to the
family in Nigeria or Togo and not to the spouse they live with here in
the United States or in London. One man actually told his wife that
until he finish building a house in Nigeria they will continue to live
in apartment with 3 kids, when I ask him when he was moving back to
Nigeria, he said not for a long time, but he believed building a house
for his parents while his kids live in a bad neighborhood and go to a
bad school district is the best thing. Many women soon challenge the
reasoning behind such thinking by refusing to combine their income
(which is needed to face the bills in western countries - you cannot
bribe NEPA men to go away if you don't pay your bills). A lot of women
also, choose not to combine their income with the husband because they
think, it is the husband's job to pay bills - they'll rather buy the
latest fashion and its accessories from Switzerland or Austria.

5. Extreme of the Women

While most of the dominance is men related, the women have also bought
into the lies of the national organization of women (NOW). I do lay
counseling and would not tell any woman to stay in an abusive
relationship. I would suggest you separate (if physical or emotional
abuse is involved) while seeking help from professional counselors or
your church or mosque (hopefully your pastor or imam will know when to
refer you for professional help). Divorce is not the better option. The
man is still the head of the home (Ephesians 5: 22 - leader among equal)
and he should be accorded such respect. Don't usurp his authority
because you earn more or throw him out because he is a Taxi driver. You
will get more done by gentle nudging him to do things and occasionally
showing tough love when necessary.

Author: Mr. Femi Awodele
Reference: http://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-104.0.html

Based on my opinion , the life of Nigerian Marriage is also involved by the extended family while in our country, the problems of marrige or family should be handle by themselves without anyone try to overcome the family problem.
More over in USA they are really individual. Their extended family can not involveto their own problem in their marriage or their family.

Democration

In contemporary western usage, the term "democracy" usually refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. The term "republic" has many different meanings but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a President, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected head of government such as a Prime Minister. Therefore, today the term is used by states which are quite different from the earlier use of the term, such as the former German Democratic Republic and the USSR. I think, every country has a government. Such as :

1. Government by the people; especially : rule of the majority b: a\government in which the supreme power is vested in the people andexercised by them directly or indirectly through a system ofrepresentation usually involving periodically held free elections
2. A political unit that has a democratic government
3. Capitalized : the principles and policies of the Democratic partyin the United States
4. The common people especially when constituting the source of political authority
5. The absence of hereditary or arbitrary class distinctions or privileges

Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is an innovative publication featuring personal practical writings reflecting on the human journey. Our essays bubble up from the depths of the human heart and seek to celebrate and offer a deeper understanding of human experience. Our goal is to discover what can nurture our true Self, what transforms our soul. It is our belief that as we dig deeply for our own personal truths, we reach the healing waters which can sustain us all. Pilgrimage is Reflections on the Human Journey The Hajj is the Fifth Pillar of Islam and therefore a very important part of the Islamic faith. All physically fit Muslims who can afford it should make the visit to Makkah, in Saudi Arabia, at least once in their lives. Every year around 2 million Muslims converge on Makkah. They visit a shrine in the city known as the Ka'bah, built by Ibrahim (Abraham) and Isma'il (Ishmael) at the command of Allah (God). It is a place for all who want to reaffirm their faith. Eid-ul-Adha celebrates the occasion when Allah appeared to Ibrahim in a dream and asked him to sacrifice his son Isma'il as an act of obedience to God. The devil tempted Ibrahim by saying he should disobey Allah and spare his son. As Ibrahim was about to kill his son, Allah intervened: instead Allah provided a lamb as the sacrifice. This is why today all over the world Muslims who have the means to, sacrifice a sheep (alternatively a goat or cow can be used), as a reminder of Ibrahim's obedience to Allah. They usually share out the meat with family and friends, as well as the poorer members of the community. In Britain, the animal has to be killed at a slaughterhouse. Eid-ul-Adha is a 1-3 day celebration and in Muslim countries is a public holiday. It starts with Muslims going to the Mosque for prayers, dressed in their best clothes, and thanking Allah for all the blessings they have received. It is also a time when they visit family and friends as well as offering presents. At Eid it is obligatory to give a set amount of money to charity to be used to help poor people buy new clothes and food so they too can celebrate. Based on the articles that I have read is I think Pilgrimage is journey to Makkah which should visited by Moslem whom has materials. The aim of we need to sacrifice "Hewan Kurban" to share out the meat with people who need it. So that, we must to remember with them. References : http://pilgrimagepress.org/bestof/index.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/religion/islam/eid_haj.shtml

Bilingualism

Bilingualism is someone who can speak with two or more than two languages. Such as me, I can speak in two languages. I am sundanesse but in my home my family and I speak both of Indonesian and Sundanesse languages. I learned English for the first time in Junior high school. Actually I am still confused to learn English because I never heard before. When my teacher thought English, all of student can not understand what she was talking about because she did not teach us from the basic. But after we learn English from basic, we know that English is the one of a thousand languages in this world. Especially for me, English is my third language that I have ever learned. I felt happy when I knew about English because English is the new one for me. Not only English that I learned but also about the culture of English. I knew that English language has many patterns. Such as Present Tense, Past Tense, Future Tense etc. In English has irregular and regular verb but not for Indonesia. That is the differences between Indonesian and English languages.

Prejudice & Stupidity

This story is about prejudice and stupidity..

It begins in 1945.One day a Spanish-speaking family moved into one of the four apartments on our landing. They were the first Puerto Ricans I had met. They had a son who was about my age named Hector, and the two of us became friends.They were the first Puerto Ricans I had met.
They had a son who was about my age named Hector, and the two of us became friends.They always played with toy soldiers together. About a year after they met, his family moved to another part of Manhattan's West Side and he does not see Hector again until he entered Booker T. Washington Junior High School as an 11-year-old. The Special Class. Hector could not be anything, because he come from a lower class. These situations make them more tracked than before until they had family each other, Kaufman still avoid Hector and never want to talk a
lot with Hector. One day after they were grow older then before Kaufman read an article that makes him change his assumptions of Hector.Kaufman try to apologize to hector.Because of that he make stupidity.
According my opinion is they are friendship, but they have many prejudice after they became teenagers, because they are felt regret. It called Stupidity.

Personal Experience

My personal experience changed my thinking about how to survive in my life. 4 years ago, before my brother passed away I thought that life is simple. Because I never thought that I will survive my family without him beside me. I never thought that he will leave us earlier. I felt so confused to solve my family's problems without him. But life must go on, so I have to continue this life and be grow up to face this life and realize that life is not easy. I have to show to my parents that I can make them proud of me. I have many plans to make my parents believe that I can make them happy whether without my brother in our new life.

Japanesse Culture

Based on my opinion, Culture covers beliefs or thought, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts in society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning. The interesting things of Japan are Japan has a good obligation which strict people to live in discipline order. Another interesting thing is the Japanese people has a high spirit to reach their goal. They are efficient, and live in simple way. Japaneses people also respect their traditional customs, although the teenagers do harajuku style to express themselves. I want to give my opinion about the way of thinking between Indonesian people and Japanese people. Indonesian people like to show off what they have to many people although they are in debt. For example, Indonesian people in Jakarta prefer to drive their own cars than using public transport. It is very different from Japanese people who choose walking than using their car to go to their office.

Why Potato? Why Rice?

Why Potato? Why Rice?
A Comparison of Food Culture in The Netherlands and Japan

Leon de Vreede

---

A Question of Culinary Reflection
I arrived in Japan a mere 3 months ago in order to teach English in public schools near Nagoya. When asked by curious Japanese people where I am from, I will not hesitate to say "Oranda" (Holland / The Netherlands). I will also not hesitate to say, perhaps a little further on in the conversation, that "I love Japanese food!" "Sushi, sashimi, miso shiru, umeboshi, tempura, takoyaki: you name it, I'll eat it," I exclaim to my jubilant hosts. I also love Japanese culture. My particular interest is in the interplay between a culture and the food it consumes, and I am curious how Dutch and Japanese cultures find a sense of identity through the food they eat.
　 Mashed potatoes or Miso shiru? Stroopwafels or sushi? This is not an essay comparing and contrasting Dutch and Japanese food items or preferences. Instead, it seeks to understand the cultural values expressed through general food choices. In other words, rather than simply observe that "the Dutch prefer potatoes prepared in such a way, whereas the Japanese enjoy rice prepared like so," I believe it is far more interesting and culturally insightful to ask "how is Dutch culture expressed through the eating of potato, and how is that similar or dissimilar to the expression of Japanese culture in the eating of rice?" Thus, "why potato, why rice?" becomes the focus. Clearly, there will be no concrete answers. This will be a light sampling of taste and habit in a brief review of two unique and very different food cultures.

Appetizer: Cultural Foods vs. Consumer Foods
Before I delve too far into cultural foods, I need to disclaim that the majority of people in Holland, and some people in Japan, do not actually eat much traditional food anymore. Food tastes (in Holland especially) have, in the past 50 years, become so internationalized as to have reached a high degree of cultural fusion and big-brand-name product orientation. Case in point: a brand-name breakfast cereal happily eaten by a Dutch child is indisti?nguishable from the same cereal eaten by children in Japan, the U.S., England, Canada, Brazil, or any other part of the globe. For the purpose of defining terms, I will refer to the modern phenomenon of culture-transcending instant meals, frozen foods, fast foods, breakfast cereals, and other such mass-produced, packaged, and branded food products as `consumer foods', in order to distinguish them from the regional uniqueness and ethnic character of `cultural foods'. Though some ambiguity will remain, the fundamental difference is that cultural foods reflect the culinary history of a population, and are still prepared from basic ingredients by members of that population. In effect, consumer food is the antithesis of cultural food, as it competes with regional diversity and tradition, and compromises the ability of people to prepare their own food from scratch.

Main Course: Bread and Potatoes in Holland
The potato (Solanum tuberosum) was introduced to Europe from South America in the 17th century and has, together with bread products, formed the main food staple of Holland and much of Europe. Before the 19th century, however, Europeans largely considered potato unfit to eat, a strange root crop to be fed only to pigs and poor people. Yet once the potato's nutritional and agricultural value was recognized (among other benefits, its high vitamin C content helped prevent scurvy in sailors), it became a popular food, especially among the lower classes. What does the history of the humble potato -- starchy, nutritious, simple to grow, and easy to store and prepare -- tell us about Dutch culture? In 1885 the young Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh painted De Aardappeleters ("The Potato Eaters"), which portrays a poor Dutch peasant family sharing a simple meal of potato. Of his sober, earthy painting van Gogh said, "…I've tried to bring out the idea that these people … have dug the earth with the self-same hands they are now putting into the dish, and it thus suggests manual labor and ? a meal honestly earned." 1

The earning of an honest living through simple a lifestyle and hard work is a value that can be traced back to what has been coined the `Protestant work ethic'. Since the Reformation (16th century), Holland has long been a bastion of Protestant (Calvinist) Christian culture in Europe, and for several centuries the rallying cry of `hard work and service to God' shaped Dutch popular culture and industry. From the time of the Middle Ages, up to the turn of the 20th century, the Dutch were known for being simple but thrifty and industrious people, and our unadorned yet functional meals of potato, meat, and bread reflected these cultural values. Though a richer court culture of refinement was maintained by the upper classes, many of its lavish habits and foods were imported from the aristocracy of France and Germany. The traditional foods that we consider to be truly `Dutch' are a legacy of the peasant people.

During the colonial period, Holland prospered thanks to its growing position as a port nation and a center of trade activity. New foods and tastes were imported, and foreigners from the colonies started to immigrate to Holland, the effects of which have has strongly shaped Dutch culture and politics ever since. Thanks to trade and the entrepreneurial culinary undertakings of the new residents, the Dutch developed a love for international cuisine. Meals became enriched by new imports from distant and exotic lands: tea and spices such as nutmeg and pepper came from Indonesia and other colonies. However, not all Dutch people welcomed the new settlers and tastes (some still don't, even today), and traditional meals of bread and potato were still eaten in most homes. One common Dutch expression epitomizes this attitude: "de boer lust niet wat hij niet kent" ("the farmer doesn't like that which is unknown to him"). One reason may be that in the Calvinist tradition, notions of glamour, frivolousness and expensive tastes were commonly associated with gluttony and indulgence, which the popular mind saw as? shortcomings of the rich. Another reason may be that potato and bread were cheap, easy to produce and prepare, and nutritious. Any farmer could grow potatoes by him or herself, granting farming households a high degree of nutritional independence. Thus, simplicity, thriftiness, efficiency, and self-sufficiency were favored over excess. The Dutch became the advanced, seafaring people with the simple ways. We had access to all the world's exotic ingredients, but in the privacy of our homes, most of us still preferred to eat the same humble dishes our parents ate. This characteristic element is still very much alive in Dutch culture today, especially among the older generations.

After the suppression and scarcity of World War II, however, the pendulum swung the other way: we loosened our belts and Dutch food choices became increasingly international. This was accompanied by a further influx of foreign immigrants, to the point where a significant percentage of our modern population is of South-East Asian, Surinamese, African, Turkish, Chinese, and Eastern European ancestry. These subcultures have largely maintained their own traditional food cultures, adding much diversity to the national food culture. Today, though many Dutch people still enjoy a good potato meal, traditional potato dishes are often considered to be a thing of our grandparent's generation, an old and somewhat bland style of cooking that is far less exciting than fast food, or the many dishes offered cheaply on the international food market. Finally, the past decades have seen an increasing consumption of branded `consumer foods', especially in the areas of fast foods and snack foods, and an increasing share of the restaurant and consumables market is being overtaken by large companies and restaurant chains.

Dutch food culture reflects elements of Dutch culture in several ways. Firstly, it shows us that the relatively homogenous native Dutch were a rational, thrifty, and hard-working people. As evidenced by the success of the potat?o, our meals were, and generally continue to be, simple, to the point, and unadorned (even international meals are usually prepared with ease and simplicity in mind). Preparation, presentation, and consumption etiquettes are simple and often ignored, and we also employ as few cooking and eating tools as possible. At the same time, the Dutch have an international reputation for being globally-minded people: we are generally fond of other cultures and their foods, as evidenced by our ethnically diverse population, and the popularity of international cuisines in Holland. Unfortunately, this paradox of old and new has a darker side: it reflects an increasing disconnection from our common past, and a dwindling sense of cultural identity. Whether we will reclaim a `Dutch identity' or move into complete internationalization, is a topic of heated social and political debate at this time, and tensions have recently boiled over into incidents of ethnic violence. Is our conscious internationalization a culturally enriching process that is experiencing some `growing pains'? Or is it that, in the growing void left behind by our disappearing home culture, are we are turning towards the international and the global (including globalized `consumer foods') to take its place?

Main Course: Rice and Seafood in Japan
Japanese `cultural food' is, as far as my limited experience has been able to comprehend, diverse, highly refined, regionally distinct, and at the same time accompanied by a rich cultural etiquette of preparation, presentation, and consumption. To start with the basics, Japanese cuisine has centered on rice since the crop was introduction from mainland China about 2000 years ago. Not just any rice, but Japanese short-grained rice: Oryza sativa, subspecies japonica. Indeed, the Japanese are so fond of their homeland rice that they hardly import any rice at all, an incredible feat for a crowded industrialized nation that could easily convert more of its agricultural land to more profitable land use. Yet t?he popular insistence, and corresponding government policy structure, is to produce and consume Japanese rice. Is this rice so popular because of certain characteristics that give it a superior quality, taste or texture, and therefore make it an obvious better choice when compared to many varieties grown in Asia, even if they are cheaper to import? Or is the overwhelming vote of the Japanese people for this particular rice because… well… because it's Japanese? The answer to this complex question will probably reveal much about Japanese food choices, and in turn, about the Japanese people. Japanese food culture has evolved greatly over the centuries. Of historical significance is a major physical feature of Japan ? it is comprised of an archipelago of islands separated from the mainland by a considerable sea voyage. This means that in addition to having been highly influenced by the mainland, Japanese culture has also experienced times of isolation, resulting in a cultural `island effect': a high degree of cultural development due to internal rather than external forces. New language, technology, cultural values, political structures, and foods have been introduced to Japan in successive waves over the centuries. In response, the Japanese have had the time to personalize and refine those introduced cultural elements, creating a rich and distinct Japanese culture.
During the Classical era (538-1185 CE), the aristocratic ruling class developed a fine court culture, and Japanese culinary taste began its long journey of refinement. The drinking of tea, and with it, the tea ceremony, was imported from China and then refined during the Feudal era (1185-1603). The kaiseki, or exquisitely prepared light meal accompanying the Japanese tea ceremony, blended flavor, taste, seasonal appropriateness, and aesthetic arrangement into a unique art form. During the prosperous and relatively peaceful Edo Period (1600-1867), Japan secluded itself from the rest of the world, and its culture evolved internally. Culinary? delights were again taken to new heights and food became more stylized, with the newly popular bento, or Japanese lunchbox meal, representing both popular and upper-class attraction to this idea. It was also during this period that sushi as we know it today became immensely popular, having evolved from a method of preserving fish with salt and fermenting it with rice. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 returned power to the Emperor, and placed Japan onto the world stage, launching it into the modern era. In the last 50 years, the influence of brand-name `consumer foods' has grown but has not become a replacement for Japanese cuisine in the way that it has in Holland.

Though modern Japanese food culture is complex, I will characterize it by comparing it to Dutch food culture. First of all, despite the growing effects of the consumer food movement, Japanese food has retained a worldwide reputation as being refined and of good quality. Many regard Japanese food as haute-couture ? a cross between a nutritional necessity and an art form. This alone is enough to differentiate it from simple, to-the-point traditional Dutch cuisine. The implication is that, compared to the Dutch, the Japanese continue to appreciate a sense of their `high' culture. The Dutch, by comparison, had developed a less extensive `high' culture, and as mentioned earlier, we are struggling to maintain any sense of shared culture at all, whether `high culture' or `popular culture'.

Secondly, for a highly developed nation that is a major player on the world economic and political stage, Japan has retained a surprisingly popular traditional food culture. Whereas the Dutch only sometimes eat the same meals that our ancestors would have eaten 200 years ago, the Japanese have held on to their popular culinary traditions. Japanese households still prepare frequent rice-based meals such as ichiju-sansai (rice, soup, and 3 side dishes), drink miso shiru for breakfast, and partake in traditional meals during ceremonies and visits with family eld?ers. Thus, Japanese food culture retains its historical and regional connectedness. This mirrors the sense of Japanese cultural identity, which is shared widely by its more or less ethnically homogeneous population (it's rare to see people of African or even European descent in most places in Japan).

Finally, the Japanese have been spectacularly adept at assimilating foods from other cultures. Examples of popular fusion dishes include tempura and pan from the Portuguese, curry-rice from the English, and numerous dishes such as ramen noodles from the Chinese and Koreans. Yet even once these fusion dishes had been assimilated, the Japanese strongly differentiated them from their own native menu, calling them seiyoshoku ("Western cuisine"), as opposed to washoku, ("Japanese cuisine"). This need to distinguish that which is Japanese from that which is not, is so strong that the Japanese even invented a separate syllabary, katakana, to keep record of the new loan words. By comparison, most people in Holland have long since forgotten where most of our language and food comes from, and have tended to embrace foreign cultural elements as our own rather than maintain an artificial boundary between the native and the foreign. This reveals an important value of Japanese society: the sublime importance of being Japanese. On the one hand, it promotes social cohesion, empathy, and a feeling of common heritage. It's darker side, however, is that it can also take the form of nationalistic or ethnocentric sentiment. Many of these descriptions would be absent in a similar assessment of Dutch culture, which tends to value individualism, globalism, and rational thinking over structured sentiment.

Dessert: Conclusion
In conclusion, I present Dutch and Japanese cultures in the following light: the former has never had room to fully develop a `high culture' for itself, and is well into a modern process of cultural fusion and diffusion, while the latter is still holding tightly onto its `high culture', resisting a tak?eover by globalizing forces by fervently reinforcing its self-identity.

Why potato? Because the Dutch found it simple, appropriate and convenient, but international foods are fulfilling those same needs and have resulted in new food choices. The Dutch treat food choices rationally, and see food culture as interchangeable.

Why (Japanese) rice? Because the Japanese are connected to their culinary and cultural heritage, and are trying to preserve it in the face of globalizing processes. The Japanese regard their traditional food as part of their intrinsic identity, and choose to remain connected to it .

In the end, will the Dutch rediscover a sense of culinary and cultural identity, or will our culture fade forever into historical oblivion? On the other hand, will the Japanese hold proudly onto their national identity and traditional foods, or will they too succumb to the culture-destroying effects of globalization and the consumer food movement? Despite the many differences between the two food cultures, one thing binds them in a common process: the struggle between maintaining a cultural identity, and dissolving into the unknown. A related, and perhaps more disturbing question, is will the terms of the emerging global food culture be determined by the big brand name companies? Or will it be created by the people of the world's nations, who can choose to remember how to prepare their own traditional foods from basic ingredients? I believe that it is up to those who care about culture and cuisine to help support and preserve traditional food cultures, for future generations to enjoy and cherish.

Bibliography: Background Information
1. Dutch cuisine. (2006, June 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:47, June 26, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_cuisine&oldid=59983217.
2. History of Japan. (2006, June 25). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:51, June 26, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Japan&oldid=60483559.
3. Hosking, R. (1997). A Dictionary of Japanese Food: Ingredients & Culture. Rutland Vermont: Tuttle Publishing.
4. Japanese cuisine. (2006, June 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 02:50, June 26, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_cuisine&oldid=59447038.
5. Vincent van Gogh: The Letters (Arles: 1888-89). (n.d.). Retrieved June 26, 2006, from http://www.vggallery.com/letters/to_theo_arles.htm


References:
http://web.kyoto-inet.or.jp/org/kicainc/ronbun/2007ron/Vreede.htm

The Islamic New Year and the significance of Muharram

Use of the Lunar Calendar

The Islamic Calendar is based on the Lunar Calendar consisting of 354-355 days annually and is 10-11 days shorter than the western Solar Calendar. The Lunar month is based on the time it takes the moon to complete a single orbit around the earth and it is just over 29? days. There are many advantages to the Lunar calendar. For example, the various dates in the Islamic Calendar such as Ramadan and Hajj rotate every year and are not fixed like the Solar Year. People, therefore, will perform acts of worship in various climatic conditions and in different length of hours in submission to the will of Allah where human imagination plays no part. The new moon marks the beginning of each new lunar month and it is easy for people to see the new moon and know that a new month has begun. This probably explains why most ancient civilizations such as the Babylonians, the Jews, the Greeks and the Egyptians in the Middle East , the Aztecs and the Incas of the West, and the Hindus and the Chinese of the East used this system. Interestingly, the English word ‘month’ is derived from the word ‘moon’.

Origin and Significance of the Hijri Calendar

The Islamic Calendar was started by the second Caliph Umar in 16 AH/ 637 CE [Al-Tabari: Tarikh Al- Rusul 5/22 & Ibn Sa‘d: Tabaqat Al- Kubra 3/281]. The event of the Hijrah, the migration of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) from Makkah to Madinah in 622 CE, was chosen to begin the Islamic Calendar because it was the first major sacrifice made by the whole Ummah for the preservation of Islam in its formative period. Ibn Hajar, in his Fath Al-Bari, records that the Caliph Umar is reported to have remarked: “The Hijrah has separated truth from falsehood, therefore, let it become the Epoch of the Era”. The Hijrah year reminds Muslims every year of the sacrifices made by the first Muslims and should prepare them to do the same. The constant use of the Hijri Calendar for acts of worship and as a frame of reference to major historical events will help Muslims keep links with their roots and further enhance their knowledge of their religion and history.

Months of the Islamic Calendar

There are twelve months in the Islamic Calendar as the Qur’an says: “Surely the number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve, in accordance with His decree from the day He created the heavens and the earth, out of which four are sacred” (9:36). These twelve months are Muharram, Safar, Rabi‘ al-Awwal, Rabi‘ al-Thani, Jumada al-Ula, Jumada al-Ukhra, Rajab, Sha‘ban, Ramadan, Shawwal, Dhul Qa‘dah and Dhul Hijjah. The four Sacred Months (al-Ashhur al-Hurum) are Rajab, Dhul Qa‘dah, Dhul Hijjah and Muharram [Bukhari]. The sanctity of these months was also accepted in the Pre-Islamic era when fighting was forbidden.

Determining Islamic Dates

Islamic dates are determined by the actual visibility of the moon as the Prophet (SAW) said: “Fast by seeing it (the moon) and end the fast by seeing it” [Bukhari & Muslim]. Muslim scholars have interpreted this Prophetic saying in two different ways. Some scholars, such as Al- Shafi’i, have held the view that each location has its own sighting of the moon (Ikhtilaf al-Mutali‘) [Sayyid Sabiq: Fiqhus Sunnah 3/112]. But most scholars from the other Schools of Law have taken the words “fast by seeing it” (sumu li ru’yatihi) as a general command to all Muslims and not individual sectors of the community. Hence they regard the sighting of the moon in one region as valid for people of another region, provided the news of sighting the moon reaches them through authentic means [Ibn Taymiyyah: Majmu‘ah Fatawa 5/111].

Muharram

This is the first month of the Islamic Calendar and one of the four Sacred Months (al-Ashhur al- Hurum). It is recommended to fast during this month as there is a Hadith which says: “The best fast, after Ramadan, is in the month of Muharram” [Muslim]. This may be an indirect reference to ‘Ashura and not to Muharram in general because, according to Sayyidah Aishah, the Prophet (SAW) fasted most in Sha‘ban after Ramadan [Bukhari & Muslim].

Yawm Al-‘Ashura

The 10th day of Muharram, known as Yawm Al-‘Ashura, is the most significant day of this month. The Prophet (SAW) said: “Fasting on the Day of ‘Ashura is an expiation of sins for the previous year”. Many events are attributed to this date such as that the Prophet Adam was born and his repentance was accepted on this day, the Prophet Abraham was saved from the fire, the Prophet Ishmael was delivered from the sacrifice, the Prophet Joseph was reunited with his father, the Prophet Job was cured of his illness and the Prophet Solomon was ordained as king. However, such assertions are not always backed by accurate historical evidences [Abdulhaqq Dehlawi: Ma Thabata bis Sunnah p.254].

Ibn Abbas relates that when Prophet Muhammad (SAW) migrated to Madinah, he found the Jews fasting on the Day of ‘Ashura. When asked for the reason of their fasting, they replied that it was the day when Allah Ta‘ala saved the Prophet Moses and the Children of Israel from their enemies.

Moses fasted to thank Allah and they fasted in emulation of him. So the Prophet (SAW) said “We have more of a right to Moses than you” and so he ordered the Muslims to fast on that day [Bukhari & Muslim]. Ibn Al-Qayyim, in his Zad Al-Ma‘ad, explains that the underlying wisdom behind the fast of ‘Ashura is to stress the affinity between the prophets who all came from Allah. This is also one instance where the Shari ‘ah given to Muhammad (SAW) preserved an earlier practice, though abrogating its obligation. However, in order not to follow the Jews, the Prophet encouraged Muslims by saying: “Observe the fast of ‘Ashura and differ from the Jews by fasting a day before it or after it” [Bayhaqi: Sunan Al-Kubra 4/287].

The Prophet’s younger grandson Imam Husayn was tragically martyred on 10th Muharram 61 AH/ 680 CE on the ‘Ashura day. The heroic martyrdom of Imam Husayn demonstrates to Muslims the need to uphold truth and justice and to fight against tyranny and evil and they should be prepared to give their lives in a similar cause if the need arises. Such situations are all too common in our own times when Muslims are being persecuted for their faith in many parts of the world.

Significance of the Hijrah for Muslims

Muharram heralds the beginning of the Islamic Calendar. The Hijrah of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and his Companions (Sahabah) from Makkah to Madinah was much more than a simple migration. It was a turning point in the history of Islam. It was a revolution and complete transformation of society. The Muhajirun (emigrants) of Makkah gave up their family, property and homeland for the sake of religion and the Ansar (helpers) of Madinah welcomed them with great hospitality. Thus a unique brotherhood (mu’akhah) was created between them, hitherto unknown in human history.

By highlighting the Hijrah, Muslims will re-affirm their need to be in a state where they can practice their religion and make the necessary sacrifices to achieve that aim, including emigration. Hijrah also has a deep spiritual significance where Muslims commit themselves to leave the state of disbelief (kufr) and sin to enter that of Islam and piety. That is why the Prophet (SAW) said: “The best emigrant (Muhajir) is the one who leaves what Allah has forbidden” [Bukhari]

Although the practical usage of the Islamic Calendar is increasingly diminishing, nevertheless the foundation of many acts of worship such as Zakah, Sawm and Hajj revolve around this calendar and it is one of the hallmarks (shi‘ar) of Islam that differentiates Muslims from other communities. Undoubtedly, there is a great need for Muslims to reaffirm their cultural heritage by using the Islamic Calendar on a regular basis and not just during Ramadan and Eid.

Author Hafiz Abdullah Muhammad is the author of ‘The Best of Times in Islam: Virtues & Significance of Important Days, Nights, Months and Festivals in Islam’ which is available. The author can be contacted at abdullah19171@hotmail.com This e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it